The processes of emergent strategy development - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 5 Words: 1405 Downloads: 6 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Marketing Essay Type Research paper Did you like this example? Emergent strategy comes about through everyday routines, activities and processes in organizations (Johnson, et. al. 2005, Pp 408). Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "The processes of emergent strategy development" essay for you Create order It occurs by chance or happens within the organization without any long term planning. There are four organizational processes of emergent strategy development: Logical Incrementalism Resource allocation routines Cultural processes Organizational politics Logical Incrementalism The development of strategy by experimentation and learning from partial commitments rather than through global formulations of total strategies (Quinn and Voyer, 2003. Pp 408) Key features of logical incremental approach are Managers have a general view rather than specific view of future direction Develop strong, flexible core business and experiment with side bet ventures Top managers utilize mix of formal/informal social and political to pull together emerging pattern of strategies. Resource allocation routines strategies emerge through formalized routines and systems of the organization (Johnson, et. al. 2005, Pp 411). Key features of resource allocation routines appr oach are Day to day decision making about resource allocation across businesses Decisions may be made at a lower level than conventionally thought to be strategic Managers proposals competing for funds Collective effects of such decisions guide the strategy. Cultural Processes Incremental strategy development can be explained as the outcome of the influence of organization culture (Johnson, et. al. 2005, Pp 416). Key features are Self-reinforcing model Over time may result in strategic drift The model and the way we do things around here mean that managers try to minimize haziness/ambiguity by defining situation as something familiar. Organizational politics Political view of strategy development is that strategies develop as the outcome of processes of bargaining and negotiation among powerful internal or external interest groups or stakeholders (Johnson, et. al. 2005, Pp 414). Negative influence Powerful individuals may influence identificatio n of key issues and strategies selected Obstructs analysis and rational thinking Results in emergent or incremental patterns of strategic development Emphasis or de-emphasis of data can be source of power Positive influence Champions will support new ideas. Political conflict and tensions may produce new ideas For example Motorola has successfully met the needs of emerging markets by using its fundamental technological strengths in electronic components to progress from supplying TVs and car radios to offering telecommunication services. Using the website of a large organisation find its organisational chart. Explain why the organisation is structured in the way illustrated. The General Electric Company or GE is an American based multinational corporation incorporated in the state of New York. The company operates through seven segments: Global Growth Operations, Energy, Capital, Home Business Solutions, Healthcare, Aviation and Transportation. The organizational chart of the company is shown below. Source: (GE, 2011) GE organizational chart represents the multidivisional structure because, is built up of separate divisions on the basis of products or services. Each division responds to the specific requirements of its products or market strategy using its own set of functional departments (Johnson, et. al. 2005, Pp 438). The main potential advantages for General Electric of having multidivisional structure are: (Grant, 2005) (Johnson, et. al. 2005, Pp 439) (Pearce II and Robinson, 2009, Pp 344) Top management has limited decision making capacity Corporate management as interface between shareholders and business level managers. Eff icient allocation of resources through internal capital and labor markets Flexible add or divert divisions Increases focus on products, markets and quick response to change Control by performance Strong identification with products Opportunity for employees to learn other functions But there are some strategic disadvantages for General Electric of having multidivisional structure are: Difficult to achieve clear division of decision making between corporate and divisional levels. Increases cost incurred through duplication functions Fragmentation and non co-operation. Explain the four tenets of organisational learning. The learning organization is capable of continual regeneration from the variety of knowledge, experience and skills of individuals within a culture which encourages mutual questioning and challenge around a shared purpose or vision (Johnson, et. al. 2005, Pp 421). Tenets of Organizational Learning: Managers facilitate rather than direct Information flows and relationships are lateral as well as vertical Organisations are pluralistic Experimentation is the norm Managers have a generalized rather than specific view of where they want the organization to be in the future and try to move towards this position incrementally. And managers may seek to develop a strong, secure, but flexible core business. They will then build on the experience gained in that business to inform decisions both about its development and experimentation with side bet ventures. Does structure follow strategy or does strategy follow structure? There are two views on the relationship between Structure and Strategy. Structure follow Strategy Strategy follow Structure The first observation put forward by Alfred Chandler (1962), was based on a study of the development of large corporations in the United States. The focus of the study was on the historical development of the businesses and the different types of organizational structure appropriate at each of the key stages of development. Chandler and Cain (1979) says that in all sides of an organizations structure, forms the creation of divisions and departments to the designation of reporting relationships, and should be made while keeping the organizations strategic intent in mind. He observed that the transition from one form of structure to another usually did not take place as soon as the key strategic issue changed. He suggested that although the entrepreneurs were typically very astute at strategy development and implementation, they tended to know very l ittle about organization structure. From the research he concluded that Structure follows Strategy. The second view, Strategy follows structure is based on the idea that managers already working within a particular organizational structure will take the structure for granted and only consider strategies that will fit with the existing structure. The reason for managerial reluctance to change structure is associated with the time consuming effort involved in such a process and the fact that some managers will have vested interests in maintaining the structure as it is. According to Lynch (2006), strategy and structure are interlinked. It may not be optimal for an organization to develop its structure after it has developed its strategy. Strategy and the structure associated with it may need to develop at the same time in an experimental way: as the strategy develops, so does the structure. The organizations learn to adapt to its changing environment and to its changing resou rces, especially if such change is radical. If the strategy process is emergent, then the learning and experimentation involved may need a more open and less formal organization structure. Finally, an organization must achieve a fit, or congruence, between strategy and structure. Since different strategies and environments place different demands on an organization, they call for different structural responses. Give an example of an organisation where resource allocation processes (RAP) form part of strategy development. The Resource Allocation Process explanation of strategy development is that realized strategies emerge as a result of the way resources are allocated in organizations (Johnson, et. al. 2008, Pp 411). Bower and Gilbert argues that strategy is not like a software program that you install and it suddenly all works, it is a fluid process that is shaped by a range of internal and external forces (Bower and Gilbert, 2005). It is claimed that resource allocation must be viewed as something that gets in the way of implementing ideas but understood as a force that can lead a company in new and unforeseen directions. The role of resource allocation in strategy making: The case of Intel The Intel case shows clearly how resource allocation has a direct impact upon the effective strategy of a company. Intel started doing semiconductor memories; more specifically they had a dominant position in the production of DRAMs (Dynamic Random Access Memory). In 1971 an Intel engineer invented the microprocessor during a funded development project for a Japanese calculator company. Top managers must know the track record of the people who are making resource allocation proposals, recognize the strategic issues at stake; reach down to operational managers to work across division lines (Bower and Gilbert, 2007). Intels sales of microprocessors grew gradually in a host of small, emerging applications. In 1980s the Japanese DRAM makers intensifies their attack on the US market causing pricing levels to drop (Johnson, et. al. 2005, Pp 430). But, microprocessors consistently had the most attractive gross margins in Intels product portfolio, and the resource allocation process therefore systematically diverted manufacturing capacity away from DRAMs and into microprocessors. From this process we can see how the resource allocation and not the deliberate strategy was in reality guiding the company.

The New Jim Crow Mass Incarceration Essay - 1797 Words

Jim Crow laws are regarded as part of the racial caste system that operated in the Southern and Border States in the years between 1877 and the mid-1960s. Under the series of the anti-black laws, African Americans were treated as inferior and second class citizens. The laws have been argued to have represented the legitimization of the anti-black racism in the US. The book The New Jim Crow Mass Incarceration in the Age of Colorblindness is written by Michelle Alexander and originally published by The New Press in 2010. The present paper reviews the above book with the intention of identifying the author’s main argument and the essence of the writer’s message to the readers. The Book’s Main Argument The author, Michael Alexander an advocate, a legal scholar and a renowned civil rights lawyer has dedicated her career fighting racial injustice, especially in the American Criminal Justice system. The main argument of her book is therefore based on the fact that the racism infects every stage of the criminal prosecution system in a bid to influence the understanding of the public regarding the war on drugs and its effect on the entire nation. The book thus argues that the war on drugs and mass incarcerations are a representation of the previous racialized social control forms such as Jim Crow and slavery. The author thus claimed that there more blacks under the control of the criminal justice system currently than the number of African Americans who were enslaved in 1860. TheShow MoreRelatedThe New Jim Crow : Mass Incarceration1370 Words   |  6 Pagesunrecognizable ways that fit into the fabric of the American society to render it nearly invisible to the majority of Americans. Mi chelle Alexander, in her book, The New Jim Crow: Mass Incarceration in the Age of Colorblindness shatters this dominantly held belief. The New Jim Crow makes a reader profoundly question whether the high rates of incarceration in the United States is an attempt to maintain blacks as an underclass. Michelle Alexander makes the assertion that â€Å"[w]e have not ended racial caste in America;Read MoreThe New Jim Crow : Mass Incarceration1361 Words   |  6 PagesBook Review Michelle Alexander, The New Jim Crow: Mass Incarceration in the Age of Colorblindness The premise of the ‘The New Jim Crow: Mass Incarceration in the Age of Colorblindness’ by Michelle Alexander, is to refute claims that racism is dead and argue that the War on Drugs and the federal drug policy unfairly targets communities of color, keeping a large majority of black men of varying ages in a cycle of poverty and behind bars. The author proves that racism thrives by highlighting theRead MoreThe New Jim Crow : Mass Incarceration1477 Words   |  6 PagesThe New Jim Crow: Mass Incarceration in the Age of Color Blindness, by Michelle Alexander. The New Press, 2010. 290 pages. Reviewed by Ashlei G Cameron. Michelle alexander is a highly acclaimed civil rights lawyer, advocate and legal scholar. As an associate professor of law at Standford law school, she directed the Civil Rights Clinic and pursued a research agenda focused on the intersection of race and criminal justice. In 2005. Alexander won a Soros Justice Fellowship that supported the writingRead MoreThe New Jim Crow : Mass Incarceration1199 Words   |  5 Pagesthose who did read her book The New Jim Crow: Mass Incarceration In The Age of Colorblindness. Michelle Alexander stated that The most despised in America is not gays, transgenders, nor even illegal immigrants - it is criminals. That was an important quote since the stereotypical criminal in our racially divided America in most cases are those of color also known as blacks. This is why the criminal justice system in the United States promotes the mass incarceration of blacks that can be seen throughRead MoreThe New Jim Crow : Mass Incarceration1081 Words   |  5 Page s Michelle Alexander’s The New Jim Crow: Mass Incarceration in the Age of Colorblindness outlines how the criminal justice system has systematically designed new methods of discriminating against African Americans. The book advocates for racial justice, specifically, for African Americans and contends they [African Americans] were targeted and subsequently incarcerated, by white voters and public officials, through the War on Drugs campaign. President Reagan and his Administration exploited racialRead MoreThe New Jim Crow : Mass Incarceration1347 Words   |  6 PagesHunter Silver Dr. Kendall Smith English 103-4120 10 November 2015 High Incarceration Rates Due to Racism Racism effects the the high incarceration rates according to Michelle Alexander, the author of â€Å"The New Jim Crow: Mass Incarceration in the Age of Colorblindness. This scholar writes about how the civil rights movement has been taken back by the mass incarceration of black Americans in the war on drugs. Alexander also explains how the severe consequences that these black men carry on afterRead MoreThe New Jim Crow : Mass Incarceration Essay1401 Words   |  6 Pages Michelle Alexander’s book, The New Jim Crow: Mass Incarceration in the Age of Colorblindness, examines mass incarceration in the United States, why the criminal justice system works the way it does towards minorities, the detriments associated with mass incarceration as it relates to offenders, and much more. In the introduction of her book, Alexander immediately paints the harsh reality of mass incarceration with the story of Jarvious Cotton who is denied the right to vote among other rights becauseRead MoreThe New Jim Crow : Mass Incarceration Essay1096 Words   |  5 PagesAlexander, Michelle. The New Jim Crow: Mass Incarceration in the Age of Colorblindness. New York: The New Press, 2010. Study Questions for â€Å"The New Jim Crow†: 1) What is the relationship between the War on Drugs and the spread of crack cocaine through inner city neighborhoods in the 1980s? President Ronald Reagan officially announced the current drug war in 1982, before crack became an issue in the media or a crisis in poor black neighborhoods. A few years after the drug war was declared, crackRead MoreThe New Jim Crow : Mass Incarceration1239 Words   |  5 PagesIn 2013, Michelle Alexander published her book, The New Jim Crow: Mass Incarceration in the Age of Colorblindness, hoping it served as a call to action. Immediately this book received a huge amount of attention because of the controversial topics presented. This book opened a lot of people’s eyes to the term colorblindness, a sociological perspective referring to the disregard of racial characteristics. There is no racial data or profiling, no classifications, and no categorizations or distinctionsRead MoreThe New Jim Crow : Mass Incarceration1547 Words   |  7 PagesSSP101 Final Michelle Alexander is a noble civil rights advocate and writer. She is best known for her 2010 book The New Jim Crow: Mass Incarceration in the age of colorblindness. Michelle Alexander writes that the many gains of the civil rights movement have been undermined by the mass incarceration of black Americans in the war on drugs. She says that although Jim Crow laws are now off the books, millions of blacks arrested for minor crimes remain marginalized and disfranchised, trapped by

Australia Tax Law

Question: Case study on Australia Tax Law. Answer: It is noteworthy to denote that there are several reasons for studying taxation. Perhaps, taxing a citizen is an important aspect and vital procedure for financing most of the necessary public sector expenses as tax revenues generated is important for the government to manage the operation of a country as well as the execution of the activities of administration. Nevertheless, it acts as source for producing several social programmes, such as the activities involving the health service for public along with education and cultural welfare programmes. Thus, the process of taxation is considered as one of the most significant ways in which societies distributional goals can be achieved. The study forms an necessary part for any complete examination of taxations. The actions of the communities segregate from nature by executing the activities from public sector. Study of taxations forms an essential part in democratic countries for administration expenses and correlates with the ways of generating revenues as determined by the constitutional provisions. In addition to this, the study of taxation represents an indispensable instrument for decision makers who want to direct scare resources for general use in the community, which forms a part of the autonomous progression. There are two basic approaches to study tax, which are as follows; A complete approach with cooperative choice: In demonstrating the two approaches, an emphasis has been paid which can be defined as normative questions. It is observed that tax study has an additional dimensions even though it is matter of interest to ask regarding the efficient definition of tax and how it can be deliberate whereas it is equally important to understand the nature of present financial monetary structure. Under this approach the systems of taxations defines an effective characteristics which illustrates the variations of revenue systems amid different jurisdictions. Perhaps the study of the present income systems highlights that there is a structure which is parallel in spite of the fact that there are many variations in personal income, profits derived by the corporate firms, properties etc. the study reveals that each tax systems has effective tax structure having distinct rates for a specific components of tax. Hence, a complete and effective approach to taxation systems consists of both positive as well as normative analysis. Political, general and partial equilibrium of study of taxation systems: The complete approach to the political financial system of taxation commences with the constructive presumption. The approach emphasis on collective process of decision making in relation to the fiscal structures which is designed to produce a nearer link amid taxation and expenses on institutional and financial limitations which might have effect limited compulsion. The theory suggested some ways of reducing the coercion and segregations by proposing the unanimity or competent budgetary measures adopted for decision making. Hence, it is to be noted that approach for decision-making is rather perspective approach and general and partial equilibrium of decision-making procedure is considered as exogenous. Such study is demonstrated by the supposition of communal planner who makes such decision on behalf of the collectively under the exogenously given welfare functions. Hence, the study has emphasised towards shifting and identification of dimension of political wellbeing losses in order to determine the tax systems to maximise the social welfare by assuming the given analytical framework. It is understood that the tax structure of an economy is solely dependent on the basis of tax rate, its base of tax and variation in rate of tax. Tax base can be referred as the base on which the amount of tax is applicable. The rate of tax signifies the percentage of tax, which is to be paid in taxes. In order to determine the tax rate it is vital to know the rate of tax, which equals the base. There are several basis of tax rate for calculating any income level and it is applicable to any level of income. The tax structure consists of the following; Regressive tax Progressive tax Proportional tax Regressive tax rate: A regressive tax rate can be defined as the one, which is in reverse proportional to profits. The lower is the return, higher is the tax rate in relation with proceeds. It is understood that most of the regressive taxes are measured on the products and services under which the actual rate of tax is in accordance with the percentage of cost of the product and services. Hence, it is to be understood that during the process of paying tax a person who is poor is believed to have paid more than the amount of a wealthy man. The most usual type of regressive tax is the sales tax and the value added tax which is commonly known as (VAT). The indispensible effect of regressive form of tax is that it is usually alleviate by paying to the underprivileged and by exempting the essentials commodities and services, such as foodstuff, from regressive tax. Progressive tax: The term progressive tax rate refers to the higher income of tax. It is believed that almost all the progressive taxes are prearranged in such a way, which is in proportional to marginal tax rate, and hence, the system of progressive effect of tax base is applicable to that part of tax which represents higher income and superior than the assured amount. The segment of the duty base is subjected to particular levy rate, which is known as toll bracket which constantly has the lower and upper limit in exception to the lower limit which does not has any upper limit. Proportional tax: Proportional tax rate is known as the flat rate of tax, which is applied on the same rate of tax forming a part of any level of income having any dimension of duty base. For example if Steve earns $60,000, Mary earns $120,000, and the proportional levy rate is 10% then Steve is liable to pay $6000 while on the other hand Mary is liable to pay $12.000. hence it is to be believed that numerous states follows income tax systems and sales tax systems which is in relation to proportional tax systems. The aims of the tax law improvement project states a clear goals that is to redraft the income tax law in order to make it more simpler and to lower the cost of compliance. Such costs are incurred by the who pays tax through acquisition of in-house and external administrative and legal infrastructure in order to meet the obligations of external administrative and legal infrastructure requirement of taxation obligations of tax. Under the tax liability improvement project the cost of compliance is segregated into those cost which is necessary to meet requirements of effective communications related to law. The success of tax law improvement project is aimed towards lowering the cost of compliance and administrative costs which could be difficult to quantify and measure. The aims and goals for tax law improvement projects are given below; The procedure involved in consultation: The guideline prescribed by the RIS reflects the significance of considering the prevailing government policy along with the legislative considerations and consultations. The major objective of tax law improvement project is to comply in wider sense with these objectives. For example, the procedure for review includes the release of two vital informations in relation to the papers and creation of consultation mechanism related to the interest groups and agencies. In addition to these the consultation could be enhanced by the tax law improvement projects by offering more information through the use of papers regarding the characteristics and the extent of compliance costs. Hence, such cost involves the considerations of the impacts on comprehensive compliance cost for each of the concerned stage of tax law improvement projects. Alternative approach regarding improvement of tax law: It is to be noted that there are three different types of approaches for improvement in taxation law, which has been considered by the tax law improvement project. According to the tax law improvement project the preferred approach which has become more specific as it works down after starting with the core provisions, there after the general provisions and finally the specialist groupings. Nevertheless the provision which has been framed is for improved numbering, which is considered as the toolbox for key terms and other noteworthy improvements. Hence the preferred approach of the tax law improvement project is developed after taking into the account several other elements such as providing increased benefit to the users along with administrative ease and efficiency. The impact created by those laws, which have an effect on parliament and community. It also determines that weather the process has been completed in a certain prescribed stage or in a progressive manner. However, it is also denoted that it is difficult to consider the tax law improvement project regarding the achievement of goals until improved information is available. The income tax assessment act is one the solitary statute under which an income tax generated is assessed. The act is gradually being re-written into the income tax assessment act 1997 and hence new matters are added into the act. The two most income important income tax assessment act are; Income tax assessment act 1936 Income tax assessment act 1997 It is to be noted that both the tax is amended over the years and it is believed to have been made it to a long act consisting of thousands pages. The act interacts in following ways: It alters the incidence of any income tax; It relives any person from liability to pay any income tax or make any return. It defeats and avoids any such duties or liabilities, which is imposed on any person under this act. It prevents the operations of these acts in any such respects. Characteristics of good tax systems: A number of the most imperative features or characteristics of good tax systems are as follows: Productivity and monetary adequacy: This is an significant standard, which governs a good tax systems in a nations which yields adequate amount of resources for the government so that it able to execute its wellbeing and developmental activities. If the tax systems fail to generate sufficient resources, the government will resort to deficit financing. Thus, it is evident that deficit-financing process is bound to raise the prices of the commodities, which is damaging for the public. In order to make the tax systems more creative it ought to be so designed that it is broad base and contains the element of direct and indirect tax. Elasticity of taxation: The principle of taxation is such that it affects the developed countries and should be designed that it is in accordance with the principle of elasticity. As per the concept of principle of elasticity of taxation systems, the national incomes increase due to the growth of economic and the revenue for the government increases when the tax system is elastic. Diversity: It is evident that good tax systems should comply with the principle of diversity. This defines that there should not be a single or few modes of tax collections systems from which the government seeks to raise a large number of revenues. Having few tax systems will compel the government to raise the existing rate of tax which will lead to adverse effect and it will affect the saving capacity of the people. Therefore, the tax systems should be such that it has a multi-point source of generating revenues for the government. Such systems call for mix in the variations of direct and indirect tax. Instrument for growth of economy: In a developing nation the instrument of tax serves an instrument for economic growth. Thus, economic growth can be defined as primarily the rate of capital formation. In a developing country, an emphasis has been paid in the capital formation for the common public at a relative high rate. It is also known as the process of mobilisation of resources in order to finance the capital formation in public sector. Taxation for ensuring the economic stability: A tax systems should be such that it ensures economic stability. Several study reveals that economic systems is affected when tax systems tends to vary. Hence a characteristics of good tax systems involves that the systems of tax should be built in such way that it represents progressive in relation to the changes in national income. Perhaps, this ensures that when the national income increases an increasing part must come automatically to the government. References Kenny, P. (2012).Australian tax 2012. Chatswood, N.S.W.: LexisNexis Butterworths. Krever, R. (2012).Australian taxation law cases 2012. Pyrmont, N.S.W.: Thomson Reuters. Management of the Australian Taxation Office's property portfolio. (2013). Barton, ACT: Australian National Audit Office. Nethercott, L., Richardson, G. and Devos, K. (2012).Australian taxation study manual. North Ryde, N.S.W.: CCH Australia. Woellner, R. (2013).Australian taxation law 2012. North Ryde [N.S.W.]: CCH Australia. Slemrod, J., Gillitzer, C. (2013).Tax systems. MIT Press. Mascagni, G., Moore, M., McCluskey, R. (2014). Tax Revenue Mobilistation In Developing Countries: Issues and Challenges. Oats, L. M., Morris, G. M. (2015). Tax Complexity and Symbolic Power. Kenny, L. W., Winer, S. L. (2016). Tax systems in the world: An empirical investigation into the importance of tax bases, administration costs, scale and political regime.International Tax and Public Finance,13(2-3), 181-215. Hettich, W., Winer, S. L. (2005).Democratic choice and taxation: A theoretical and empirical analysis. Cambridge University Press. Tahk, S. C. (2013). Everything Is Tax: Evaluating the Structural Transformation of Policymaking.Harv. J. on Legis.,50, 67.